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#===
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#arity
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#curry
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#lambda?
#parameters
#source_location
#to_proc
#to_s
#yield

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Proc

A Proc object is an encapsulation of a block of code, which can be stored in a local variable, passed to a method or another Proc, and can be called. Proc is an essential concept in Ruby and a core of its functional programming features.

square = Proc.new {|x| x**2 }

square.call(3)  #=> 9
# shorthands:
square.(3)      #=> 9
square[3]       #=> 9

Proc objects are closures, meaning they remember and can use the entire context in which they were created.

def gen_times(factor)
  Proc.new {|n| n*factor } # remembers the value of factor at the moment of creation
end

times3 = gen_times(3)
times5 = gen_times(5)

times3.call(12)               #=> 36
times5.call(5)                #=> 25
times3.call(times5.call(4))   #=> 60

Creation¶ ↑

There are several methods to create a Proc

Use the Proc class constructor:
```
proc1 = Proc.new {|x| x**2 }
```
Use the Kernel#proc method as a shorthand of ::new:
```
proc2 = proc {|x| x**2 }
```

Receiving a block of code into proc argument (note the &):

def make_proc(&block)
  block
end

proc3 = make_proc {|x| x**2 }

Construct a proc with lambda semantics using the Kernel#lambda method (see below for explanations about lambdas):
```
lambda1 = lambda {|x| x**2 }
```
Use the Lambda literal syntax (also constructs a proc with lambda semantics):
```
lambda2 = ->(x) { x**2 }
```

Lambda and non-lambda semantics¶ ↑

Procs are coming in two flavors: lambda and non-lambda (regular procs). Differences are:

In lambdas, return and break means exit from this lambda;
In non-lambda procs, return means exit from embracing method (and will throw LocalJumpError if invoked outside the method);
In non-lambda procs, break means exit from the method which the block given for. (and will throw LocalJumpError if invoked after the method returns);
In lambdas, arguments are treated in the same way as in methods: strict, with ArgumentError for mismatching argument number, and no additional argument processing;
Regular procs accept arguments more generously: missing arguments are filled with nil, single Array arguments are deconstructed if the proc has multiple arguments, and there is no error raised on extra arguments.

Examples:

# +return+ in non-lambda proc, +b+, exits +m2+.
# (The block +{ return }+ is given for +m1+ and embraced by +m2+.)
$a = []; def m1(&b) b.call; $a << :m1 end; def m2() m1 { return }; $a << :m2 end; m2; p $a
#=> []

# +break+ in non-lambda proc, +b+, exits +m1+.
# (The block +{ break }+ is given for +m1+ and embraced by +m2+.)
$a = []; def m1(&b) b.call; $a << :m1 end; def m2() m1 { break }; $a << :m2 end; m2; p $a
#=> [:m2]

# +next+ in non-lambda proc, +b+, exits the block.
# (The block +{ next }+ is given for +m1+ and embraced by +m2+.)
$a = []; def m1(&b) b.call; $a << :m1 end; def m2() m1 { next }; $a << :m2 end; m2; p $a
#=> [:m1, :m2]

# Using +proc+ method changes the behavior as follows because
# The block is given for +proc+ method and embraced by +m2+.
$a = []; def m1(&b) b.call; $a << :m1 end; def m2() m1(&proc { return }); $a << :m2 end; m2; p $a
#=> []
$a = []; def m1(&b) b.call; $a << :m1 end; def m2() m1(&proc { break }); $a << :m2 end; m2; p $a
# break from proc-closure (LocalJumpError)
$a = []; def m1(&b) b.call; $a << :m1 end; def m2() m1(&proc { next }); $a << :m2 end; m2; p $a
#=> [:m1, :m2]

# +return+, +break+ and +next+ in the stubby lambda exits the block.
# (+lambda+ method behaves same.)
# (The block is given for stubby lambda syntax and embraced by +m2+.)
$a = []; def m1(&b) b.call; $a << :m1 end; def m2() m1(&-> { return }); $a << :m2 end; m2; p $a
#=> [:m1, :m2]
$a = []; def m1(&b) b.call; $a << :m1 end; def m2() m1(&-> { break }); $a << :m2 end; m2; p $a
#=> [:m1, :m2]
$a = []; def m1(&b) b.call; $a << :m1 end; def m2() m1(&-> { next }); $a << :m2 end; m2; p $a
#=> [:m1, :m2]

p = proc {|x, y| "x=#{x}, y=#{y}" }
p.call(1, 2)      #=> "x=1, y=2"
p.call([1, 2])    #=> "x=1, y=2", array deconstructed
p.call(1, 2, 8)   #=> "x=1, y=2", extra argument discarded
p.call(1)         #=> "x=1, y=", nil substituted instead of error

l = lambda {|x, y| "x=#{x}, y=#{y}" }
l.call(1, 2)      #=> "x=1, y=2"
l.call([1, 2])    # ArgumentError: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)
l.call(1, 2, 8)   # ArgumentError: wrong number of arguments (given 3, expected 2)
l.call(1)         # ArgumentError: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)

def test_return
  -> { return 3 }.call      # just returns from lambda into method body
  proc { return 4 }.call    # returns from method
  return 5
end

test_return # => 4, return from proc

Lambdas are useful as self-sufficient functions, in particular useful as arguments to higher-order functions, behaving exactly like Ruby methods.

Procs are useful for implementing iterators:

def test
  [[1, 2], [3, 4], [5, 6]].map {|a, b| return a if a + b > 10 }
                            #  ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
end

Inside map, the block of code is treated as a regular (non-lambda) proc, which means that the internal arrays will be deconstructed to pairs of arguments, and return will exit from the method test. That would not be possible with a stricter lambda.

You can tell a lambda from a regular proc by using the lambda? instance method.

Lambda semantics is typically preserved during the proc lifetime, including &-deconstruction to a block of code:

p = proc {|x, y| x }
l = lambda {|x, y| x }
[[1, 2], [3, 4]].map(&p) #=> [1, 2]
[[1, 2], [3, 4]].map(&l) # ArgumentError: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)

The only exception is dynamic method definition: even if defined by passing a non-lambda proc, methods still have normal semantics of argument checking.

class C
  define_method(:e, &proc {})
end
C.new.e(1,2)       #=> ArgumentError
C.new.method(:e).to_proc.lambda?   #=> true

This exception ensures that methods never have unusual argument passing conventions, and makes it easy to have wrappers defining methods that behave as usual.

class C
  def self.def2(name, &body)
    define_method(name, &body)
  end

  def2(:f) {}
end
C.new.f(1,2)       #=> ArgumentError

The wrapper def2 receives body as a non-lambda proc, yet defines a method which has normal semantics.

Conversion of other objects to procs¶ ↑

Any object that implements the to_proc method can be converted into a proc by the & operator, and therefore con be consumed by iterators.

class Greeter
  def initialize(greeting)
    @greeting = greeting
  end

  def to_proc
    proc {|name| "#{@greeting}, #{name}!" }
  end
end

hi = Greeter.new("Hi")
hey = Greeter.new("Hey")
["Bob", "Jane"].map(&hi)    #=> ["Hi, Bob!", "Hi, Jane!"]
["Bob", "Jane"].map(&hey)   #=> ["Hey, Bob!", "Hey, Jane!"]

Of the Ruby core classes, this method is implemented by Symbol, Method, and Hash.

:to_s.to_proc.call(1)           #=> "1"
[1, 2].map(&:to_s)              #=> ["1", "2"]

method(:puts).to_proc.call(1)   # prints 1
[1, 2].each(&method(:puts))     # prints 1, 2

{test: 1}.to_proc.call(:test)       #=> 1
%i[test many keys].map(&{test: 1})  #=> [1, nil, nil]

Orphaned Proc¶ ↑

return and break in a block exit a method. If a Proc object is generated from the block and the Proc object survives until the method is returned, return and break cannot work. In such case, return and break raises LocalJumpError. A Proc object in such situation is called as orphaned Proc object.

Note that the method to exit is different for return and break. There is a situation that orphaned for break but not orphaned for return.

def m1(&b) b.call end; def m2(); m1 { return } end; m2 # ok
def m1(&b) b.call end; def m2(); m1 { break } end; m2 # ok

def m1(&b) b end; def m2(); m1 { return }.call end; m2 # ok
def m1(&b) b end; def m2(); m1 { break }.call end; m2 # LocalJumpError

def m1(&b) b end; def m2(); m1 { return } end; m2.call # LocalJumpError
def m1(&b) b end; def m2(); m1 { break } end; m2.call # LocalJumpError

Since return and break exits the block itself in lambdas, lambdas cannot be orphaned.

Public Class Methods

new {|...| block } → a_proc click to toggle source

new → a_proc

Creates a new Proc object, bound to the current context. ::new may be called without a block only within a method with an attached block, in which case that block is converted to the Proc object.

def proc_from
  Proc.new
end
proc = proc_from { "hello" }
proc.call   #=> "hello"

 
               static VALUE
rb_proc_s_new(int argc, VALUE *argv, VALUE klass)
{
    VALUE block = proc_new(klass, FALSE);

    rb_obj_call_init_kw(block, argc, argv, RB_PASS_CALLED_KEYWORDS);
    return block;
}

Public Instance Methods

prc << g → a_proc click to toggle source

Returns a proc that is the composition of this proc and the given g. The returned proc takes a variable number of arguments, calls g with them then calls this proc with the result.

f = proc {|x| x * x }
g = proc {|x| x + x }
p (f << g).call(2) #=> 16

 
               static VALUE
proc_compose_to_left(VALUE self, VALUE g)
{
    return rb_proc_compose_to_left(self, to_callable(g));
}

proc === obj → result_of_proc click to toggle source

Invokes the block with obj as the proc's parameter like #call. This allows a proc object to be the target of a when clause in a case statement.

 
               static VALUE
proc_call(int argc, VALUE *argv, VALUE procval)
{
    /* removed */
}

prc >> g → a_proc click to toggle source

Returns a proc that is the composition of this proc and the given g. The returned proc takes a variable number of arguments, calls g with them then calls this proc with the result.

f = proc {|x| x * x }
g = proc {|x| x + x }
p (f >> g).call(2) #=> 8

 
               static VALUE
proc_compose_to_right(VALUE self, VALUE g)
{
    return rb_proc_compose_to_right(self, to_callable(g));
}

prc[params,...] → obj click to toggle source

Invokes the block, setting the block's parameters to the values in params using something close to method calling semantics. Returns the value of the last expression evaluated in the block.

a_proc = Proc.new {|scalar, *values| values.map {|value| value*scalar } }
a_proc.call(9, 1, 2, 3)    #=> [9, 18, 27]
a_proc[9, 1, 2, 3]         #=> [9, 18, 27]
a_proc.(9, 1, 2, 3)        #=> [9, 18, 27]
a_proc.yield(9, 1, 2, 3)   #=> [9, 18, 27]

Note that prc.() invokes prc.call() with the parameters given. It's syntactic sugar to hide “call”.

For procs created using lambda or ->() an error is generated if the wrong number of parameters are passed to the proc. For procs created using ::new or Kernel#proc, extra parameters are silently discarded and missing parameters are set to nil.

a_proc = proc {|a,b| [a,b] }
a_proc.call(1)   #=> [1, nil]

a_proc = lambda {|a,b| [a,b] }
a_proc.call(1)   # ArgumentError: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)

See also #lambda?.

 
               static VALUE
proc_call(int argc, VALUE *argv, VALUE procval)
{
    /* removed */
}

arity → integer click to toggle source

Returns the number of mandatory arguments. If the block is declared to take no arguments, returns 0. If the block is known to take exactly n arguments, returns n. If the block has optional arguments, returns -n-1, where n is the number of mandatory arguments, with the exception for blocks that are not lambdas and have only a finite number of optional arguments; in this latter case, returns n. Keyword arguments will be considered as a single additional argument, that argument being mandatory if any keyword argument is mandatory. A proc with no argument declarations is the same as a block declaring || as its arguments.

proc {}.arity                  #=>  0
proc { || }.arity              #=>  0
proc { |a| }.arity             #=>  1
proc { |a, b| }.arity          #=>  2
proc { |a, b, c| }.arity       #=>  3
proc { |*a| }.arity            #=> -1
proc { |a, *b| }.arity         #=> -2
proc { |a, *b, c| }.arity      #=> -3
proc { |x:, y:, z:0| }.arity   #=>  1
proc { |*a, x:, y:0| }.arity   #=> -2

proc   { |a=0| }.arity         #=>  0
lambda { |a=0| }.arity         #=> -1
proc   { |a=0, b| }.arity      #=>  1
lambda { |a=0, b| }.arity      #=> -2
proc   { |a=0, b=0| }.arity    #=>  0
lambda { |a=0, b=0| }.arity    #=> -1
proc   { |a, b=0| }.arity      #=>  1
lambda { |a, b=0| }.arity      #=> -2
proc   { |(a, b), c=0| }.arity #=>  1
lambda { |(a, b), c=0| }.arity #=> -2
proc   { |a, x:0, y:0| }.arity #=>  1
lambda { |a, x:0, y:0| }.arity #=> -2

 
               static VALUE
proc_arity(VALUE self)
{
    int arity = rb_proc_arity(self);
    return INT2FIX(arity);
}

binding → binding click to toggle source

Returns the binding associated with prc.

def fred(param)
  proc {}
end

b = fred(99)
eval("param", b.binding)   #=> 99

 
               static VALUE
proc_binding(VALUE self)
{
    VALUE bindval, binding_self = Qundef;
    rb_binding_t *bind;
    const rb_proc_t *proc;
    const rb_iseq_t *iseq = NULL;
    const struct rb_block *block;
    const rb_env_t *env = NULL;

    GetProcPtr(self, proc);
    block = &proc->block;

  again:
    switch (vm_block_type(block)) {
      case block_type_iseq:
        iseq = block->as.captured.code.iseq;
        binding_self = block->as.captured.self;
        env = VM_ENV_ENVVAL_PTR(block->as.captured.ep);
        break;
      case block_type_proc:
        GetProcPtr(block->as.proc, proc);
        block = &proc->block;
        goto again;
      case block_type_symbol:
        goto error;
      case block_type_ifunc:
        {
            const struct vm_ifunc *ifunc = block->as.captured.code.ifunc;
            if (IS_METHOD_PROC_IFUNC(ifunc)) {
                VALUE method = (VALUE)ifunc->data;
                VALUE name = rb_fstring_lit("<empty_iseq>");
                rb_iseq_t *empty;
                binding_self = method_receiver(method);
                iseq = rb_method_iseq(method);
                env = VM_ENV_ENVVAL_PTR(block->as.captured.ep);
                env = env_clone(env, method_cref(method));
                /* set empty iseq */
                empty = rb_iseq_new(NULL, name, name, Qnil, 0, ISEQ_TYPE_TOP);
                RB_OBJ_WRITE(env, &env->iseq, empty);
                break;
            }
            else {
              error:
                rb_raise(rb_eArgError, "Can't create Binding from C level Proc");
                return Qnil;
            }
        }
    }

    bindval = rb_binding_alloc(rb_cBinding);
    GetBindingPtr(bindval, bind);
    RB_OBJ_WRITE(bindval, &bind->block.as.captured.self, binding_self);
    RB_OBJ_WRITE(bindval, &bind->block.as.captured.code.iseq, env->iseq);
    rb_vm_block_ep_update(bindval, &bind->block, env->ep);
    RB_OBJ_WRITTEN(bindval, Qundef, VM_ENV_ENVVAL(env->ep));

    if (iseq) {
        rb_iseq_check(iseq);
        RB_OBJ_WRITE(bindval, &bind->pathobj, iseq->body->location.pathobj);
        bind->first_lineno = FIX2INT(rb_iseq_first_lineno(iseq));
    }
    else {
        RB_OBJ_WRITE(bindval, &bind->pathobj,
                     rb_iseq_pathobj_new(rb_fstring_lit("(binding)"), Qnil));
        bind->first_lineno = 1;
    }

    return bindval;
}

call(params,...) → obj click to toggle source

Invokes the block, setting the block's parameters to the values in params using something close to method calling semantics. Returns the value of the last expression evaluated in the block.

a_proc = Proc.new {|scalar, *values| values.map {|value| value*scalar } }
a_proc.call(9, 1, 2, 3)    #=> [9, 18, 27]
a_proc[9, 1, 2, 3]         #=> [9, 18, 27]
a_proc.(9, 1, 2, 3)        #=> [9, 18, 27]
a_proc.yield(9, 1, 2, 3)   #=> [9, 18, 27]

Note that prc.() invokes prc.call() with the parameters given. It's syntactic sugar to hide “call”.

a_proc = proc {|a,b| [a,b] }
a_proc.call(1)   #=> [1, nil]

a_proc = lambda {|a,b| [a,b] }
a_proc.call(1)   # ArgumentError: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)

See also Object#hash.

 
               static VALUE
proc_hash(VALUE self)
{
    st_index_t hash;
    hash = rb_hash_start(0);
    hash = rb_hash_proc(hash, self);
    hash = rb_hash_end(hash);
    return ST2FIX(hash);
}

inspect() click to toggle source

Alias for: to_s

lambda? → true or false click to toggle source

Returns true if a Proc object is lambda. false if non-lambda.

The lambda-ness affects argument handling and the behavior of return and break.

A Proc object generated by proc ignores extra arguments.

proc {|a,b| [a,b] }.call(1,2,3)    #=> [1,2]

It provides nil for missing arguments.

proc {|a,b| [a,b] }.call(1)        #=> [1,nil]

It expands a single array argument.

proc {|a,b| [a,b] }.call([1,2])    #=> [1,2]

A Proc object generated by lambda doesn't have such tricks.

lambda {|a,b| [a,b] }.call(1,2,3)  #=> ArgumentError
lambda {|a,b| [a,b] }.call(1)      #=> ArgumentError
lambda {|a,b| [a,b] }.call([1,2])  #=> ArgumentError

#lambda? is a predicate for the tricks. It returns true if no tricks apply.

lambda {}.lambda?            #=> true
proc {}.lambda?              #=> false

::new is the same as proc.

Proc.new {}.lambda?          #=> false

lambda, proc and ::new preserve the tricks of a Proc object given by & argument.

lambda(&lambda {}).lambda?   #=> true
proc(&lambda {}).lambda?     #=> true
Proc.new(&lambda {}).lambda? #=> true

lambda(&proc {}).lambda?     #=> false
proc(&proc {}).lambda?       #=> false
Proc.new(&proc {}).lambda?   #=> false

A Proc object generated by & argument has the tricks

def n(&b) b.lambda? end
n {}                         #=> false

The & argument preserves the tricks if a Proc object is given by & argument.

n(&lambda {})                #=> true
n(&proc {})                  #=> false
n(&Proc.new {})              #=> false

A Proc object converted from a method has no tricks.

def m() end
method(:m).to_proc.lambda?   #=> true

n(&method(:m))               #=> true
n(&method(:m).to_proc)       #=> true

define_method is treated the same as method definition. The defined method has no tricks.

class C
  define_method(:d) {}
end
C.new.d(1,2)       #=> ArgumentError
C.new.method(:d).to_proc.lambda?   #=> true

define_method always defines a method without the tricks, even if a non-lambda Proc object is given. This is the only exception for which the tricks are not preserved.

class C
  define_method(:e, &proc {})
end
C.new.e(1,2)       #=> ArgumentError
C.new.method(:e).to_proc.lambda?   #=> true

This exception ensures that methods never have tricks and makes it easy to have wrappers to define methods that behave as usual.

class C
  def self.def2(name, &body)
    define_method(name, &body)
  end

  def2(:f) {}
end
C.new.f(1,2)       #=> ArgumentError

The wrapper def2 defines a method which has no tricks.

 
               VALUE
rb_proc_lambda_p(VALUE procval)
{
    rb_proc_t *proc;
    GetProcPtr(procval, proc);

    return proc->is_lambda ? Qtrue : Qfalse;
}

parameters → array click to toggle source

Returns the parameter information of this proc.

prc = lambda{|x, y=42, *other|}
prc.parameters  #=> [[:req, :x], [:opt, :y], [:rest, :other]]

 
               static VALUE
rb_proc_parameters(VALUE self)
{
    int is_proc;
    const rb_iseq_t *iseq = rb_proc_get_iseq(self, &is_proc);
    if (!iseq) {
        return rb_unnamed_parameters(rb_proc_arity(self));
    }
    return rb_iseq_parameters(iseq, is_proc);
}

source_location → [String, Integer] click to toggle source

Returns the Ruby source filename and line number containing this proc or nil if this proc was not defined in Ruby (i.e. native).

 
               VALUE
rb_proc_location(VALUE self)
{
    return iseq_location(rb_proc_get_iseq(self, 0));
}

to_proc → proc click to toggle source

Part of the protocol for converting objects to Proc objects. Instances of class Proc simply return themselves.

 
               static VALUE
proc_to_proc(VALUE self)
{
    return self;
}

to_s → string click to toggle source

Returns the unique identifier for this proc, along with an indication of where the proc was defined.

 
               static VALUE
proc_to_s(VALUE self)
{
    const rb_proc_t *proc;
    GetProcPtr(self, proc);
    return rb_block_to_s(self, &proc->block, proc->is_lambda ? " (lambda)" : NULL);
}

Also aliased as: inspect

yield(params,...) → obj click to toggle source

Invokes the block, setting the block's parameters to the values in params using something close to method calling semantics. Returns the value of the last expression evaluated in the block.

a_proc = Proc.new {|scalar, *values| values.map {|value| value*scalar } }
a_proc.call(9, 1, 2, 3)    #=> [9, 18, 27]
a_proc[9, 1, 2, 3]         #=> [9, 18, 27]
a_proc.(9, 1, 2, 3)        #=> [9, 18, 27]
a_proc.yield(9, 1, 2, 3)   #=> [9, 18, 27]

Note that prc.() invokes prc.call() with the parameters given. It's syntactic sugar to hide “call”.

a_proc = proc {|a,b| [a,b] }
a_proc.call(1)   #=> [1, nil]

a_proc = lambda {|a,b| [a,b] }
a_proc.call(1)   # ArgumentError: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)